Center for Distance and Independent Study
World Geography, Second Half Unit

Commentary

Asia is the largest and most populous continent. Africa ranks second in both size and population. Due to their vast size, each of these continents has a huge amount of physical, climatic, economic, and cultural diversity. However, North Africa, the region north of the Sahara Desert, shares many characteristics with the adjacent areas of Southwest and Central Asia

The countries of North Africa, which border the Mediterranean Sea and Atlantic Ocean, are Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, and Egypt.

Countries in Southwest Asia are Turkey, Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Afghanistan, Iran, Syria, Israel and the Palestinian Territories, Lebanon, Jordan, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Qatar, Bahrain, the United Arab Emirates, Oman, and Yemen.

The countries of Central Asia, previously republics of the Soviet Union, are Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan.

Physical Geography

Southwest Asia and North Africa contain several important peninsulas. The largest of these peninsulas is the Arabian Peninsula, which is bordered by the Red Sea to the west and the Persian Gulf to the east. To the south are the Gulf of Aden and the Arabian Sea. This large, arid peninsula is divided into the countries of Yemen, Oman, United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Kuwait, and Saudi Arabia. The densely populated island country of Bahrain is located off the coast in the Persian Gulf. A large part of the peninsula is covered by a desert called the Rub' al Khali (Empty Quarter).

The region's second major peninsula is Anatolia, which is the site of Turkey. This peninsula is bordered by the Black Sea to the north and the Aegean Sea and Mediterranean Sea to the south. At the northwestern corner of the peninsula, a narrow waterway connects the Black Sea and the Mediterranean Sea. This waterway is comprised of two straits named the Bosporus and the Dardanelles and the small Sea of Marmara. The small part of Turkey separated from Anatolia by these waterways is actually located in Europe, while the rest of the country is in Asia.

The Sinai Peninsula in northeastern Egypt is one of the smaller peninsulas in the region. Because this narrow strip of land connects Africa with Asia, the Sinai has been a vital crossroads throughout history. It allowed travelers from Asia, Africa, and even Europe to exchange goods and ideas. Due to the lack of precipitation, only about 200,000 people live on the Sinai. Most of the inhabitants are nomadic herders known as Bedouins.

This region has several major bodies of water, including the Aegean Sea, Arabian Sea, Black Sea, Caspian Sea, Mediterranean Sea, Persian Gulf, Gulf of Aden, the Sea of Marmara, and the Atlantic Ocean.

Although it is relatively small, the Dead Sea is one of the world's most unique bodies of water. It is located on the border between Israel and Jordan. Its shoreline is about 1,300 feet below sea level, making it the lowest area of land on Earth. It is also the world's saltiest body of water, more than nine times saltier than the oceans. It is fed primarily by the Jordan River and has no outlets. The lack of rivers flowing from the sea and high rates of evaporation caused by the area's high temperatures account for the Dead Sea's high salt content.

Besides containing large quantities of sodium chloride (salt), the Dead Sea contains magnesium chloride, calcium chloride, potassium chloride, and several other minerals. Due to this heavy concentration of minerals, only microscopic organisms can survive in the Dead Sea. Fish placed in these salty waters die within a few days. Despite a lack of aquatic life, the sea's many minerals make it valuable economically. Substantial amounts of minerals are obtained from the waters of the Dead Sea.

There are several mountain ranges in North Africa, Southwest Asia, and Central Asia. In North Africa, the Atlas Mountains stretch across northern Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia. The Ahaggar Mountains are found in southern Algeria. In Southwest Asia, southern Turkey is home to the Taurus Mountains. The most extensive range in Iran is the Zagros Mountains. The Caucasus Mountains stretch from the Black Sea to the Caspian Sea. The Hindu Kush in Afghanistan and the Tian Shan in Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan contain some of the highest mountains in that region.

Even though most areas of North Africa and Southwest Asia region receive little precipitation, this region is home to three of the world's great rivers. The Nile, Tigris, and Euphrates rivers provide water for irrigation, hydroelectric power, transportation, and many other human uses, but they also played important roles in the historical development of ancient kingdoms in the region.

The Nile, the world's longest river, flows northward before reaching the Mediterranean Sea at the Nile Delta. Although the Nile River Valley accounts for only about 3 percent of Egypt's land area, it is home to more than 90 percent of the country's population. The river was so important to ancient Egyptians that they built a calendar around its annual flooding. Today, the annual Nile floods have been controlled by the construction of the Aswan High Dam.

Figure 3.1. The Nile River is the world's longest river.

The Tigris and Euphrates rivers flow from their sources in Turkey southeastward before reaching the Persian Gulf. These rivers were at the heart of a rich agricultural region called the Fertile Crescent that was home to several ancient kingdoms. The waters in these rivers are still valued by the countries through which they flow. In fact, Turkey's plan to build several dams is opposed by countries downstream because they are concerned the amount of water reaching them will be drastically reduced.

Climate Regions

One of the characteristics shared by most areas in North Africa, Southwest Asia, and Central Asia is a lack of precipitation. About half the region is classified as desert, which means it receives less than ten inches of rain each year. The Sahara covers 3.5 million square miles in North Africa and is the world's largest desert. Deserts such as the Rub' al Kahali (Empty Quarter) cover most of the Arabian Peninsula. Central Asia also has a large area of desert centered on the Aral Sea. The Garagum (Kara Kum) is the largest desert in Central Asia.

For many people, deserts bring to mind vast expanses of sand dunes. Most desert surfaces in this part of the world, however, consist of rocky gravel or flat sandstone rather than shifting sands. In a few spots, an underground supply of water called an oasis is able to support vegetation. Although they are now major cities, Damascus, Syria, and Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, were established near oases. As the populations of cities in arid regions continue to grow, the increased demand for water could create greater challenges for their inhabitants.

Figure 3.2. Taghit Oasis in Algeria

Steppe climates receive a little more precipitation than deserts, usually between ten and fourteen inches each year. Steppe lands make up the region's second-largest climate zone. These regions do not receive enough rainfall to cultivate crops, so many people rely on herding and grazing animals on short grasses. The most common livestock raised along the steppes include sheep, goats, and camels. Steppe is found along the north edge of the Sahara, in central Turkey, Iran, Afghanistan, and in large areas of Central Asia.

The Mediterranean climate zone, characterized by cool, rainy winters and hot, dry summers, is found along the Mediterranean Sea, Black Sea, Caspian Sea, and the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. Crops such as grapes, olives, dates, citrus fruits, and some grains grow well in Mediterranean climate regions. This is the same type of climate found in southern California.

Mountainous areas of Afghanistan, Georgia, and Azerbaijan are in a highland climate zone.

Early Civilizations

The land between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers was known as Mesopotamia in ancient times. This term literally means "the land between rivers." Throughout history, periodic flooding of the rivers has deposited a new supply of soil and nutrients, creating a fertile region for farming. In fact, this area is part of a larger area that was known as the Fertile Crescent. Early civilizations such as the Sumerians, Assyrians, Babylonians, and Chaldeans developed in this region.

The Sumerian civilization developed around 4000 BC The Sumerians developed the wheel, copper tools, and a wedge-shaped system of writing called cuneiform. The cuneiform writings and artifacts left by the Sumerians indicate they had a very well-developed civilization. Perhaps their greatest architectural achievement was the building of large temples called ziggurats. Due to the lack of natural barriers to prevent invasion, the Sumerians constantly needed to defend their fertile lands from outsiders. Around 2300 BC, the Sumerians were conquered by Akkadian invaders led by Sargon I. The Akkadians ruled only briefly, however, and their empire was eventually absorbed into the Kingdom of Sumer, creating a kingdom known as Sumer and Akkad.

The Babylonian Empire is another of Mesopotamia's famous civilizations. The Babylonian king, Hammurabi, is credited with creating one of the world's first written codes of law, known as the Code of Hammurabi. This is the world's oldest set of laws known in its entirety. The Code of Hammurabi outlines the basic punishments associated with the violation of laws. The codes tended to associate the punishment with the crime in a manner similar to "an eye for an eye." The laws were equal for all classes and protected women, children, and even slaves along with the wealthy men of Babylonian society.

Other civilizations developed in the lands of ancient Mesopotamia. The fertile lands attracted numerous invaders who typically established kingdoms that resembled the models established by the Sumerians and Babylonians. Invaders from other areas brought many new ideas to the region. Over time, the innovations created in this region slowly spread to surrounding lands.

The fertile lands along the Nile River in North Africa also gave rise to one of the world's early civilizations. Ancient Egyptians are known for achievements such as building the giant pyramids and the Great Sphinx, but they made many other contributions to world culture and learning. The Egyptians developed hieroglyphics, a system of writing which used a twenty-four-letter alphabet. They used hieroglyphics to write messages in temples, tombs, and on a form of paper known as papyrus. They also made many advances in mathematics, such as the development of a numeral system and geometry. Egyptians developed an accurate calendar, which had twelve months with thirty days each. They added five religious days to this calendar to create a year composed of 365 days. Through the mummification processes used to preserve human bodies after death, the Egyptians learned much about the body and made several significant advances in medicine.

Figure 3.3. The Great Sphinx and the Great Pyramid of Giza

The Phoenician civilization developed at the eastern edge of the Mediterranean Sea. The Phoenicians are known for developing an alphabet that formed the basis of many modern-day Western languages. During the 500s BC, the Persian Empire was centered on modern-day Iran.

Natural Resources

The most important natural resources in North Africa, Southwest Asia, and Central Asia are petroleum and natural gas. It is now believed that this region holds 60 percent of the world's oil reserves. Saudi Arabia is the region's largest oil producer. Saudi Arabia and Iran have large oil refining facilities, but many other countries export oil in its crude form to industrialized nations. Consequently, much of the profit from the oil industry leaves the countries in which it was obtained.

Although the amount of productive farmland is small because of poor soils or dry climates, many people are engaged in agriculture. Countries with areas of Mediterranean climate can produce citrus fruit, dates, cereal grains, grapes, and olives. In addition to growing wheat, potatoes, and livestock, some of the countries in Central Asia are major producers of cotton.

Water is a natural resource most countries in this region lack due to the dry climate. Much of the water used for human consumption or agricultural activities comes from rivers or underground aquifers. Irrigation is needed in many areas that grow crops.

The shortage of water is dramatically illustrated by the plight of the Aral Sea. Countries in Central Asia have used water from the Aral Sea to irrigate cotton and other crops. Because more water has been removed than has been returned by rainfall and runoff, the sea is a fraction of its former size.

In order to live in a place, people must have an adequate supply of freshwater for personal consumption and other uses. Israel and several countries in the Persian Gulf region have turned to desalination to produce water suitable for human use. Desalination, which removes salt from seawater, can be an expensive process because it requires a great deal of energy.

Religion

Three of the world's great religions—Judaism, Christianity, and Islam—developed in Southwest Asia. The three religions share some beliefs and historical figures. Also, each is monotheistic, meaning its followers believe in a single god.

The oldest of these religions is Judaism. The ancient Israelis, a group of nomadic herders, lived in the eastern edge of the Mediterranean region. They created the kingdoms of Israel and Judah and made Jerusalem their capital. They practiced monotheism, which differed greatly from polytheism, or belief in many gods, which was practiced by most ancient cultures. The ancient Israelis believed their leaders were mere spokesmen for God, not actual gods themselves. This differed from the beliefs of many of their neighboring peoples, as did the belief that no person was above the law. Jews now live in many countries around the world, including Israel, which was established after World War II as the Jewish homeland.

Christianity, which developed after Judaism, is based on the teachings of Jesus. Jesus and his early followers were Jews living in Palestine. Some of Jesus' teachings challenged the authority of those in power, and he was put to death by Roman rulers. Early Christians compiled the teachings of Jesus into the Christian Bible and spread the religion to Asia and Europe. Christianity is the predominant religion in Europe, the Americas, Australia, and many countries in Oceania.

Islam, the most widespread religion in North Africa, Southwest Asia, and Central Asia, is the most recent of the three religions. In about AD 610 the prophet Muhammad founded Islam on the Arabian Peninsula. Islam is based in part on the teachings of Judaism and Christianity. Like the other two religions, Islam embraces kindness, charity, and similar virtues. Muslims, followers of Islam, believe Muhammad is the most important of God's prophets. The Muslim holy book is called the Quran (also spelled Koran). Makkah (also spelled Mecca), a city in Saudi Arabia, is the holiest city in Islam, and many Muslims try to make a pilgrimage to the city at least once in their lives. Arabic is the primary language spoken in North Africa and Southwest Asia. Because the Quran (Koran) is written in Arabic, many non-Arabic-speaking Muslims learn the language to read its teachings.

Figure 3.4. Pilgrims perform sunset prayers at the Great Mosque in Makkah (Mecca), Saudi Arabia.

Ethnic Characteristics

North Africa, Southwest Asia, and Central Asia have a variety of racial and ethnic groups. Arabs are the largest ethnic group in the countries in North Africa and on the Arabian Peninsula. Arabs speak the Arabic language, and most are followers of Islam.

Turks are the dominant ethnic group in the country of Turkey. They trace their history to the Seljuk Turks who arrived in the Anatolian Peninsula in the eleventh century. They later formed the Ottoman Empire, which ruled a large area around the Anatolian Peninsula until the early 1900s. Although Turks are the largest ethnic group in modern-day Turkey, there is a sizable Kurdish minority population, along with smaller numbers of Arabs, Armenians, and Jews. Most people in Turkey practice Islam.

The Kurds are an ethnic group living in a region known as Kurdistan, which includes parts of Turkey, Iran, Iraq, and Syria. They are mainly Muslim. Although the Kurdish population is estimated to number about thirty million, Kurds do not have a country of their own. They would like to carve out an independent Kurdistan, but that move is strongly opposed by the countries that would lose territory to their Kurdish minority populations.

Two countries in the region of the Caucasus Mountains, Georgia and Armenia, have populations that are primarily Christian. The Armenians once lived in a large area that included part of modern-day Turkey. During the early twentieth century, Ottoman Turks killed or deported about a million Armenians. In 1918, the nation of Armenia declared its independence from Turkish rule, but in 1922, it was incorporated into the Soviet Union. Following the collapse of the Soviet Union, Armenia gained its independence in 1991. Armenia is a culturally homogeneous nation, with almost all of its population being ethnic Armenians.

Most of the other countries in Southwest and Central Asia are Muslim, but there is ethnic diversity among the countries. In Iran, Persians make up a little more than half the population, while Azeris account for about 25 percent. Many Iranians believe they trace their ancestry to Aryans, who were Indo-Europeans who migrated to the region from southern Russia about three thousand years ago. Iranians speak Persian (also called Farsi), an Indo-European language. Afghanistan's two largest ethnic groups are the Pashtuns and the Tajiks. Ethnic groups in the countries of Central Asia include the Kyrgyz, Uzbek, Kazak, and Azeri.

Unlike the populations of surrounding countries, Israel's population is mainly Jewish. Seventy-seven percent of the people in Israel are Jews, and 16 percent are Arab Muslims. Following World War II and the horrors of the Holocaust, the United Nations helped to establish a homeland for the Jews, and the modern country of Israel was founded in 1948. The Arabs living in the region strongly opposed the creation of the country of Israel, and tension between the Arabs and Israelis has resulted in numerous wars since 1948. Israel and some of its neighbors have signed peace treaties, but the issue of land for Palestinian Arabs who were displaced by the creation of Israel remains unresolved. The Israelis and Palestinians have been fighting—and sometimes negotiating—for many years, but a final settlement of the territorial dispute has been difficult to achieve.

Government and Political Systems

The countries in this region have a range of political and governmental systems, ranging from democracies to monarchies to military dictatorships. Because Islam is the primary religion in most countries in the region, Islamic law often plays a large role in these societies. In 1979, a revolution established Iran as an Islamic republic ruled by a religion leader called an ayatollah. Saudi Arabia, Qatar, and Oman are among the monarchies ruled by kings. For many years, Libya has been a military dictatorship under the leadership of Muammar al-Qaddafi.

The region's countries are also working to overcome challenges. In Central Asia, former republics of the Soviet Union are developing their economic and political systems after several decades spent in the shadow of Russia, their large and powerful neighbor. In 2003, U.S. forces overthrew the government of Iraqi dictator Saddam Hussein, and the country began the difficult task of creating a stable government that was capable of rebuilding the country and uniting its various religious groups. Afghanistan has also been struggling to develop a stable government capable of uniting the country's diverse tribes and ousting international terrorists. The uneasy relations between Israel and its Arab neighbors, especially Palestinians who seek their own independent country, also loom large over the region's international affairs.

Culture

The cultures of the past have influenced much of the art in this part of the world. The achievements of ancient civilizations and the influences of Islam are all dominant artistic and architectural themes. With religious restrictions against depicting Muhammad or any living creatures in art, Muslim artists developed great works of art using geometric designs. Many of these artistic achievements can be seen in Islamic architecture in mosques and other buildings. In addition, many Muslim artists applied their arts to decorating ceramics, bronze items, and wood carvings in an effort to create a type of art that was affordable to the majority of the people in the region.

Figure 3.5. The fountain at the Hassan II Mosque in Casablanca, Morocco

In the past hundred years, the population of the region has increased rapidly, creating many problems with overcrowding, housing shortages, lack of economic opportunities, and poverty. Only a small portion of the region's land is suitable for farming, yet nearly half of all the people earn a living in agricultural activities. The standard of living in varies from country to country. Wealthy nations like Israel, Qatar, and the United Arab Emirates have relatively high standards of living. Others, like Afghanistan, have very low standards of living and widespread poverty.

Along with farming, oil production and service activities are major occupations in this region. Service activities include teaching, banking, and tourism. Tourism is especially important as the region attracts many people from throughout the world due to its historic and religious significance. However, some countries discourage tourism in an effort to prevent foreign influence on their culture. Tourism has also suffered in recent years due to war and the fear of terrorism. A challenge for many societies in this region—where traditional cultures and ways of life have been so important—is adapting to outside influences and new ideas brought by modern communications technology and easy transportation.